In this unit, we learned about primary and secondary sources as well as how you might learn, but we also covered a great deal of material. Below are the essential questions that the state of Virginia has decided you need to know the answers to. If you do not know the answers you should probably study this unit or come see me.

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• How did the mountains, seas, islands, harbors, peninsulas, and straits of the Aegean Basin shape Greek economic, social, and political development and patterns of trade and colonization?

• How did mythology help the early Greek civilization explain the natural world and the human condition?

• What impact did Greek mythology have on later civilizations and the contemporary world?

• How did democracy develop in Athens?

• How did Sparta differ from Athens?

• Why were wars with Persia important to the development of Greek culture?

• Why was the Peloponnesian War important to the spread of Greek culture?

• Why was the leadership of Pericles important to the development of Athenian life and Greek culture?

• What were some important contributions of Greek culture to Western civilization?

• How did the empire of Alexander the Great establish a basis for the spread of Hellenistic culture?

• How was geographic location important to the economic, social, and political development of ancient Rome?

• What was the source of Roman mythology?

• What impact did Roman mythology have on later civilizations?

• How did the government of the Roman Republic become more democratic in its decision making?

• Why was Rome able to conquer Carthage and then go on to extend its influence across the entire Mediterranean basin and much of Western Europe?

• Why did the Roman Republic fail to survive challenges by Julius Caesar?

• How did military conquests alter economic and social life in Rome?

• How did an imperial monarchy come to rule Rome?

• What was the Pax Romana?

• What was the impact of the Pax Romana on the Roman Empire?

• How did Christianity become established within the Roman Empire?

• What were the essential beliefs of the early Christian faith?

• How and why did Christianity spread?

• What was the impact of the early Church in the late Roman Empire?

• How did Roman achievements influence Western civilization?

• Why did the Western Roman Empire decline?

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The state of Virginia also gives us a list of the information that you will be tested on. They call it the essential knowledge. You will find the essential knowledge for this unit below:

 

Locations and places

• Aegean Sea

• Balkan and Peloponnesus peninsula­, Europe, Asia Minor

• Mediterranean Sea

• Black Sea, Dardanelles

• Athens, Sparta, Troy

• Macedonia

 

Economic and social development

• Agriculture (limited arable land)

• Commerce and the spread of Hellenic culture

• Shift from barter to money economy (coins)

 

Political development

• Mountainous terrain both helped and hindered the development of city-states.

• Greek cities were designed to promote civic and commercial life.

• Colonization was prompted by overpopulation and the search for arable land.

 

Greek mythology

• Based on polytheistic religion

• Offered explanations of natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events

 

Greek gods and goddesses

• Zeus, Hera, Apollo, Artemis, Athena, Aphrodite

• Symbols and images in Western literature, art, and architecture

 

Social structure and citizenship in the Greek polis

• Citizens (free adult males) had political rights and the responsibility of civic participation in government.

• Women and foreigners had no political rights.

• Slaves had no political rights.

 

Athens

• Stages in the evolution of Athenian government: Monarchy, aristocracy, tyranny, democracy

• Tyrants who worked for reform: Draco, Solon

• Origin of democratic principles: Direct democracy, public debate, duties of the citizen

 

Sparta

• Oligarchy (rule by a small group)

• Rigid social structure

• Militaristic and aggressive society

 

Importance of Persian Wars (499–449 b.c. [b.c.e.])

• Persian wars united Athens and Sparta against the Persian Empire.

• Athenian victories over the Persians at Marathon and Salamis left Greeks in control of the Aegean Sea.

• Athens preserved its independence and continued innovations in government and culture.

 

Importance of Peloponnesian War (431–404 b.c. [b.c.e.])

• Caused in part by competition for control of the Greek world: Athens and the Delian League versus Sparta and the Peloponnesian League

• Resulted in slowing of cultural advance and the weakening of political power

 

Golden Age of Pericles (mostly occurring between the Persian and the Peloponnesian Wars)

• Pericles extended democracy; most adult males had an equal voice.

• Pericles had Athens rebuilt after destruction in the Persian Wars; the Parthenon is an example of this reconstruction.

 

Contributions of Greek culture to Western civilization

• Drama: Aeschylus, Sophocles

• Poetry: Homer (Iliad and Odyssey)

• History: Herodotus, Thucydides

• Sculpture: Phidias

• Architecture: Types of columns, including the Doric (Parthenon), Ionic, and Corinthian.

• Science: Archimedes, Hippocrates

• Mathematics: Euclid, Pythagoras

• Philosophy: Socrates, Plato, Aristotle

 

Philip II, King of Macedon

• Conquered most of Greece

 

Alexander the Great

• Established an empire from Greece to Egypt and the margins of India

• Extended Greek cultural influences

 

Hellenistic Age

• Blend of Greek and oriental elements

• Spread of Hellenistic culture through trade

 

Locations and places

• Rome: Centrally located in the Mediterranean Basin and distant from eastern Mediterranean powers

• Italian Peninsula

• Alps: Protection

• Mediterranean Sea: Protection, sea-borne commerce

 

Roman mythology

• Based on the Greek polytheistic religion

• Explanations of natural phenomena, human qualities, and life events

 

Roman gods and goddesses

• Jupiter, Juno, Apollo, Diana, Minerva, and Venus

• Symbols and images in literature, art, and architecture

 

Social structure in the Roman Republic

• Patricians: Powerful nobility (few in number)

• Plebeians: Majority of population

• Slaves: Not based on race

 

Citizenship

• Patrician and plebeian men

• Selected foreigners

• Rights and responsibilities of citizenship (e.g., taxes, military service)

 

Features of democracy

• Representative democracy

• Assemblies

• The Senate

• Consuls

• Laws of Rome codified as Twelve Tables

 

Punic Wars: Rome vs. Carthage (264–146 b.c. [b.c.e.])

• Rome and Carthage were in competition for trade.

• Hannibal invaded the Italian Peninsula.

• Three wars resulted in Roman victory, the destruction of Carthage, and expanded trade and wealth for Rome.

 

Evolution of the Roman Empire and spread of Roman culture

• Mediterranean basin (Africa, Asia, Europe, including the Hellenistic world of the Eastern Mediterranean)

• Western Europe (Gaul, British Isles)

 

Causes for the decline of the Roman Republic

• Spread of slavery in the agricultural system

• Migration of small farmers into cities and unemployment

• Civil war over the power of Julius Caesar

• Devaluation of Roman currency; inflation

 

The origin and evolution of Imperial Rome

• First triumvirate

• Julius Caesar: Seizure of power, assassination

• Augustus Caesar: Civil war, defeat of Marc Anthony, Rome’s first emperor

• Empire: Unified and enlarged, using imperial authority and the military

• Failure to provide for peaceful succession of Emperors

 

The Pax Romana

• Two centuries of peace and prosperity under imperial rule

• Expansion and solidification of the Roman Empire, particularly in the Near East

 

Economic impact of the Pax Romana

• Established uniform system of money, which helped to expand trade

• Guaranteed safe travel and trade on Roman roads

• Promoted prosperity and stability

 

Social impact of the Pax Romana

• Returned stability to social classes

• Increased emphasis on the family

 

Political impact of the Pax Romana

• Created a civil service

• Developed a uniform rule of law

 

Origins of Christianity

• Had its roots in Judaism

• Was led by Jesus of Nazareth, who was proclaimed the Messiah

• Conflicted with polytheistic beliefs of Roman Empire

 

Beliefs, traditions, and customs of Christianity

• Monotheism

• Jesus as both Son and incarnation of God

• Life after death

• New Testament, containing accounts of the life and teachings of Jesus, as well as writings of early Christians

• Christian doctrines established by early church councils

 

Spread of Christianity

• Popularity of the message

• Early martyrs inspired others

• Carried by the Apostles, including Paul, throughout the Roman Empire

 

Impact of the Church of Rome in the late Roman Empire

• The Emperor Constantine converted to Christianity and made it legal.

• Christianity later became the official state religion.

• The Church became a source of moral authority.

• Loyalty to the Church became more important than loyalty to the Emperor.

• The Church became the main unifying force of Western Europe.

 

Contributions of ancient Rome

• Art and architecture: Pantheon, Colosseum, Forum

• Technology: Roads, aqueducts, Roman arches

• Science: Achievements of Ptolemy

• Medicine: Emphasis on public health (public baths, public water systems, medical schools)

• Language: Latin, Romance languages

• Literature: Virgil’s Aeneid

• Religion: Roman mythology; adoption of Christianity as the imperial religion

• Law: The principle of “innocent until proven guilty” (from the Twelve Tables)

 

Causes for the decline of the Western Roman Empire

• Geographic size: Difficulty of defense and administration

• Economy: The cost of defense, and devaluation of Roman currency

• Military: Army membership started to include non-Romans, resulting in decline of discipline

• Moral decay: People’s loss of faith in Rome and the family

• Political problems: Civil conflict and weak administration

• Invasion: Attacks on borders

 

Division of the Roman Empire

• Move of the capital by Constantine from Rome to Byzantium, renaming it Constantinople

• Survival of the Western Roman Empire until 476 a.d. (c.e.), when it ceased to have a Roman Emperor

• Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantine Empire)