The state of Virginia also gives us a list of the information that you will be tested on. They call it the essential knowledge. You will find the essential knowledge for this unit below:

 

Postwar outcomes

• The end of World War II found Soviet forces occupying most of Eastern and Central Europe and the eastern portion of Germany.

• Germany was partitioned into East and West Germany, as was its capital city, Berlin. West Germany and West Berlin became democratic and resumed self-government after a few years of American, British, and French occupation. East Germany and East Berlin remained under the domination of the Soviet Union and did not adopt democratic institutions.

• Following its defeat, Japan was occupied by American forces. It soon adopted a democratic form of government, resumed self-government, and became a strong ally of the United States.

• Europe lay in ruins, and the United States launched the Marshall Plan, which provided massive financial aid to rebuild European economies and prevent the spread of communism.

• The United Nations was formed near the end of World War II to create a body for the nations of the world to try to prevent future global wars, with the United States being one of five key members of the United Nations’ Security Council.

 

Origins of the Cold War

• The Cold War lasted from the end of World War II until the collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991.

• The United States and the Soviet Union represented starkly different fundamental values. The United States represented democratic political institutions and a generally free market economic system. The Soviet Union was a totalitarian government with a communist (socialist) economic system.

• The Truman Doctrine of “containment of communism” was a guiding principle of American foreign policy throughout the Cold War—not to uproot communism where it already existed, but to keep it from spreading and to resist communist aggression into other countries.

• The communist takeover in China shortly after World War II increased American fears of communist domination of most of the world. Rather than becoming strong allies, however, the communist nations of China and the Soviet Union eventually became rivals for territory and diplomatic influence, a split that American foreign policy under President Nixon in the 1970s exploited.

• After the Soviet Union matched the United States in nuclear weaponry in the 1950s, the threat of a nuclear war that would destroy both countries was ever-present throughout the Cold War. America, under President Eisenhower, adopted a policy of “massive retaliation” to deter any nuclear strike by the Soviets.

 

American military forces during the Cold War

• In response to the events associated with the Berlin Airlift, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) was formed as a defensive alliance among the United States and Western European countries to prevent a Soviet invasion of Western Europe. Soviet allies in Eastern Europe formed the Warsaw Pact, and for nearly 50 years, both sides maintained large military forces facing each other in Europe.

• During the Cold War era, millions of Americans served in the military, defending freedom in wars and conflicts that were not always popular. Many were killed or wounded. As a result of their service, the United States and American ideals of democracy and freedom ultimately prevailed in the Cold War struggle with Soviet communism.

• President Kennedy pledged in his inaugural address that the United States would “pay any price, bear any burden, meet any hardship, support any friend, oppose any foe, in order to assure the survival and the success of liberty.” In the same address, he also said, “Ask not what your country can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.”

• President Kennedy was assassinated in 1963 in Dallas, Texas, in an event that shook the nation’s confidence and began a period of internal strife and divisiveness, especially spurred by divisions over United States involvement in Vietnam.

• Unlike veterans of World War II, who returned to a grateful and supportive nation, Vietnam veterans returned often to face indifference or outright hostility from some who opposed the war.

• It was not until several years after the end of the Vietnam War that the wounds of the war began to heal in America, and Vietnam veterans were recognized and honored for their service and sacrifices.

 

The Korean War

• American involvement in the Korean War in the early 1950s reflected the American policy of containment of communism.

• The United States military maintains a presence in South Korea.

 

The Vietnam War

• American involvement in Vietnam also reflected the Cold War policy of containment of communism.

• Beginning in the 1950s and continuing into the early 1960s, the communist government of North Vietnam attempted to install through force a communist government in South Vietnam. The United States helped South Vietnam resist.

• The American military buildup in Vietnam began under President John Kennedy. After Kennedy’s assassination in 1963, the buildup was intensified under President Lyndon Johnson.

• The scale of combat in Vietnam grew larger during the 1960s. American military forces repeatedly defeated the North Vietnamese forces in the field, but fought a limited war.

• America became bitterly divided over the issue. While there was support for the American military and conduct of the war among many Americans, others opposed the war, and active opposition to the war mounted, especially on college campuses.

• After Johnson declined to seek reelection, President Richard Nixon was elected on a pledge to bring the war to an honorable end. He instituted a policy of “Vietnamization,” withdrawing American troops and replacing them with South Vietnamese forces while maintaining military aid to the South Vietnamese.

• Ultimately “Vietnamization” failed when South Vietnamese troops proved unable to resist invasion by the Soviet-supplied North Vietnamese Army. In 1975, North and South Vietnam were merged under communist control.

 

China

• While negotiating an end to the Vietnam War, President Nixon, along with his Secretary of State Henry Kissinger, instituted the Cold War policy of détente which led to Nixon’s visit to China and the United States’ formal recognition of the communist-controlled People’s Republic of China.

• Due to this relaxation of tensions between the United States and China, the Soviets sought to improve relations with the United States, which led to the Strategic Arms Limitations Treaty (SALT). President Nixon was forced out of office by the Watergate scandal.

 

Confrontation between the United States and Cuba

• Cuba was also a site of Cold War confrontations.

• Fidel Castro led a communist revolution that took over Cuba in the late 1950s. Many Cubans fled to Florida and later attempted to invade Cuba and overthrow Castro. This Bay of Pigs invasion failed.

• In 1962, the Soviet Union stationed missiles in Cuba, instigating the Cuban Missile Crisis. President Kennedy ordered the Soviets to remove their missiles, instituted a naval blockade of Cuba as Soviet ships approached, and for several days the world was on the brink of nuclear war. Eventually, the Soviet leadership ordered the removal of the missiles from Cuba.

 

Impact of the Cold War at home

• The fear of communism and the threat of nuclear war affected American life throughout the Cold War.

• During the 1950s and 1960s, American schools regularly held drills to train children in what to do in case of a nuclear attack, and American citizens were urged by the government to build bomb shelters in their own basements.

• The convictions of Julius and Ethel Rosenberg for spying for the Soviet Union and the construction of nuclear weapons by the Soviets, using technical secrets obtained through spying, increased domestic fears of communism.

• Senator Joseph McCarthy played on American fears of communism by recklessly accusing many American governmental officials and other citizens of being communists, based on flimsy or no evidence. This led to the coining of the term McCarthyism—the making of false accusations based on rumor or guilt by association.

• The Cold War made foreign policy a major issue in every presidential election during the period.

• The heavy military expenditures throughout the Cold War benefited Virginia’s economy proportionately more than any other state, especially in Hampton Roads, home to several large naval and air bases, and in Northern Virginia, home to the Pentagon and numerous private companies that contract with the military.

 

Internal problems of the Soviet Union

• Rising nationalism in Soviet republics

• Increasing Soviet military expenses

• Economic inefficiency of communism

 

Role of President Ronald Reagan

• Reagan instituted a policy of massive military buildup.

• He supported the development of the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), also commonly known as “Star Wars.”

• Reagan challenged the moral legitimacy of the Soviet Union with strong rhetoric, including his speech at the Berlin Wall. 

• Ultimately, President Reagan and Soviet Premier Mikhail Gorbachev agreed to terms of arms reduction in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START).

 

Expansion of economic prosperity

• Implementation of the G.I. Bill

• Development of the Interstate Highway System

• Rise of the middle class

 

Expansion of initiatives for non-middle-class Americans

• Lyndon Johnson attempted to create a “Great Society” by waging a “War on Poverty.”

• Initiatives included Medicare, Medicaid, and the Economic Opportunity Act.

 

Brown v. Board of Education

• Supreme Court decision that segregated schools are unequal and must desegregate

• Included Virginia case Davis v. County School Board of Prince Edward

 

Key people

• Barbara Johns: Student leader in Prince Edward County

• Thurgood Marshall: NAACP legal defense team

• Oliver W. Hill, Sr.: NAACP legal defense team in Virginia

• Earl Warren: Supreme Court chief justice

 

Virginia’s response

• Massive Resistance: Closing some schools

• Establishment of private academies

• White flight from urban school systems to suburbs

 

National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)

• The NAACP challenged segregation in the courts.

• The association had a long history of working to overturn the Plessy v. Ferguson decision.

 

1963 March on Washington

• Participants were inspired by the “I Have a Dream” speech given by Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr.

• The march helped influence public opinion to support civil rights legislation.

• The march demonstrated the power of nonviolent, mass protest.

 

Civil Rights Act of 1964

• The act prohibited discrimination based on race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.

• The act desegregated public accommodations (e.g., hotels, restaurants, movie theaters).

• President Lyndon B. Johnson played an important role in the passage of the act.

 

Voting Rights Act of 1965

• The act outlawed literacy tests.

• Federal registrars were sent to the South to register voters.

• The act resulted in an increase in African American voters.

• President Johnson played an important role in the passage of the act.

 

Americans with Disabilities Act

• Although the Civil Rights Act of 1964 addressed a broad scope of discrimination, the discrimination against people with disabilities would not be addressed until 1973 with the passage of Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973.

• Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973 prohibits discrimination on the basis of disability in federal programs and by recipients of federal financial assistance.

• The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), requires that all children with disabilities receive a free, appropriate public education in the least restrictive environment.

 

The Immigration Act of 1965, which reversed the Immigration Restriction Acts of the 1920s, opened the United States to increased immigration from many diverse countries, especially from Asian and Latin American countries.

 

Reasons for immigration

• Political freedom

• Economic opportunity

 

Issues related to immigration policy

• Strain on government services

• Filling low-paying jobs in the United States

• Border issues

• Pathway to citizenship

• Bilingual education

• Increasing cultural diversity

 

Contributions of immigrants

• Diversity in music, the visual arts, and literature

• Roles in the labor force

• Achievements in science, engineering, and other fields

• Many minorities elected to high public offices at the state and national levels of government

 

President Reagan and conservative Republicans advocated for

• tax cuts

• transfer of responsibilities to state governments

• appointment of judges/justices who exercised judicial restraint

• reduction in the number and scope of government programs and regulations

• strengthening of the American military.

 

President George H. W. Bush, 1989–1993

• Fall of communism in Eastern Europe and the breakup of the Soviet state

• Reunification of Germany

• Persian Gulf War of 1990–1991 (Operation Desert Storm), the first war in which American women served in a combat role

• Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 and Clean Air Act Amendments of 1990

 

President William J. Clinton, 1993–2001

• North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA)

• Restored full diplomatic relations with Vietnam

• Lifting of economic sanctions against South Africa when the policy of apartheid ended

• Dramatically reshaped welfare programs and helped reduce federal welfare spending

 

President George W. Bush, 2001–2009

• Terrorists attacks on United States soil on September 11, 2001

• Wars in Afghanistan and Iraq

• No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB)

 

President Barack H. Obama, 2009–2016

• Osama Bin Laden and the campaign against Al Qaeda

• Withdrawal of United States’ forces from Iraq

• Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act of 2010

 

In the early 1960s, President Kennedy pledged increased support for the American space program. The race to the moon continued through the 1960s. United States astronaut John Glenn was the first American to orbit Earth. In 1969, American astronaut Neil Armstrong was the first person to step onto the moon’s surface. He proclaimed, “That’s one small step for a man, one giant leap for mankind.”

 

Sally Ride was the first female American astronaut.

 

Over the past three decades, improved technology and media have brought about better access to communication and information for businesses and individuals in both urban and rural areas. As a result, many more Americans have access to global information and viewpoints.

 

Examples of technological advances

• Space exploration

• Space shuttle

• Mars rover

• Voyager missions

• Hubble telescope

• Communications

• Televisions

• Personal computers

• Cellular telephones

• Electronic mail (e-mail)

• Social media

• Robotics

• Medical Care

• Polio vaccine by Dr. Jonas Salk

• Cancer screenings

 

Expansion of popular culture

• The invention of the television became the main mode of media for news, entertainment, and cultural trends of the post-World War II era

• Introduction of new genres of music, including Rock and Roll, Disco, and Hip-Hop

• The expansion of popular culture led to conflict between opposing cultural views

• More occupations opened up to women during the twentieth century, changing their role, concerns, and influence:

• An increasingly large percentage of America’s labor force

• Women in nontraditional jobs

• Role of courts in providing opportunities

• Need for affordable day care

• Equitable pay

• “Glass ceiling” (perception that career advancement for women is not equal to men)

• Influence and effect of the Internet and social media allowing people to share information worldwide

 

The membership of the United States Supreme Court during the end of the twentieth century and early twenty-first century has included women and minorities, such as Sandra Day O’Connor, Ruth Bader Ginsburg, Clarence Thomas, Sonia Sotomayor, and Elena Kagan.

 

The United States Supreme Court protects the individual rights enumerated in the Constitution of the United States.

 

Right to privacy

• The United States Supreme Court identifies a constitutional basis for a right to privacy that is protected from government interference.

• Roe v. Wade established the precedent of right to privacy.

• Riley v. California (2014) protects the privacy of digital information on cell phones.

 

Equal rights

• The Civil Rights Movement of the 1940s, 1950s, and 1960s provided a model that other minority groups have used to extend civil rights and promote equal justice.

• Loving v. Virginia (1967) protected equal rights for individuals, struck down state laws that prohibited interracial marriage, and held that marriage was a fundamental right.

• Arizona v. Inter Tribal Council of Arizona (2013) invalidated a state law requiring proof of citizenship during the voter registration application process.

 

Rule of law

• Rule of law is a principle under which all persons, institutions, and entities are accountable to the laws.

• Gideon v. Wainwright (1963) requires states to provide counsel for needy defendants charged with serious offenses.

• Snyder v. Phelps (2011) upholds that protests of public concern are entitled to greater protection under the free speech clause of the First Amendment.

 

The United States has experienced multiple terrorist attacks at home and abroad.

• Attack on the USS Cole

• September 11, 2001: Attacks on the World Trade Center towers, the Pentagon, and Flight 93

• Boston Marathon bombing

 

The United States’ responses to terrorism

• Heightened security at home (Patriot Act)

• Diplomatic and military initiatives

• Formation of the Transportation Security Administration (TSA)

 

Government promotes a healthy economy characterized by full employment and low inflation through the actions of

• the Federal Reserve: Monetary policy decisions influence money supply and promote sustainable economic growth

• the president and Congress: Fiscal policy decisions determine levels of government taxation and spending in an effort to impact economic growth.

 

The “Reagan Revolution” extended beyond his tenure in office with

• the election of his vice president, George H. W. Bush

• the Republican sweep of congressional elections and statehouses in the 1990s

• the election of George W. Bush as president

• the formation of the Tea Party movement and its influence in the Republican Party.

 

President George W. Bush, 2001–2009

• Launched the War on Terror

• Promoted policies on the economy, health care, education, and social security reform

• Signed into law broad tax cuts, the Patriot Act, and the No Child Left Behind Act

• Obtained congressional passage of economic programs intended to preserve American financial system

 

President Barack H. Obama, 2009–2016

• Signed into law economic stimulus legislation in response to the Great Recession

• American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009

• Tax Relief, Unemployment Insurance Reauthorization, and Job Creation Act of 2010

• Called for Congress to pass legislation to reform health care in the United States

 

Industries benefiting from new technologies

• Computer industry

• Satellite systems: Global positioning systems (GPS)

• Telecommunications: Smartphones

• Internet-based businesses

 

Impact of new technologies on American life

• Increased domestic and international travel for business and pleasure

• Greater access to news and other information

• Cheaper and more convenient means of communication

• Convenience of online shopping opportunities

• Hacking and personal identity theft

• Social media

• Telecommuting

• Online course work

• Growth of service industries

• Advancements in medical research, including improved medical diagnostic and imaging technologies as well as stem cell research

• Outsourcing and offshoring